Abstract：Nature reserves (NRs) are essential for preserving natural ecosystems, biodiversity, and ecological balance and for mediating human-land conflicts while sustaining ecosystem services (ESs). This study was conducted in China as a study area to assess the conservation effect of NRs through the intensity of human footprint (HF) impacting ESs. This study utilized a spatio-temporal geographically weighted regression model using multi-source data to assess the impact of HF on ESs across NRs at the national level. The results show that NRs greatly enhance ESs and reduce HF and that their conservation effects vary depending on the location, type, and management strategy of the NRs. The study concludes that while HF typically destroys ecosystems, some of the HF within NRs can enhance ESs. Moreover, the impacts of HF on ESs were progressively more positive over time, suggesting that conservation awareness is increasing. Findings suggest that developing targeted policies to manage HF within NRs can further improve conservation effectiveness. This study proposed a differentiated approach to optimize conservation effectiveness based on the NRs characteristics and supports policy and strategy development for the conservation and management of NRs in China.KeyWord：Ecosystem services; Human footprint; National nature reserves; InVEST; Spatial regression; China;
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